Neuromodulation therapy is vigorously proven to support treatments of various neurological, chronic and mental diseases and disorders. This includes, but is NOT limited to:
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Depression is a common mental disorder characterized by persistent sadness and a loss of interest in activities that are typically enjoyable. This tends to lead to an inability to carry out daily activities, erratic sleep habits, loss of appetite (or increased appetite with atypical depression), constant fatigue, etc. It can significantly impair social, occupational, and daily functioning.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Depression involves dysfunction in multiple brain systems:
Depression affects over 280 million people worldwide (WHO estimate), with a lifetime prevalence of about 15–20%. It is more common in women, often emerging in adolescence or early adulthood, and can be recurrent or chronic.
Neuromodulation is transforming how we approach depression—offering a safe, effective, and drug-free solution for individuals who haven’t fully responded to conventional therapies. Backed by clinical research, neuromodulation consistently delivers meaningful symptom relief in 25% to 50% of patients, with up to 40% achieving significant improvement.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation helps reverse core physiological changes in depression by restoring cortical activity, enhancing connectivity and neuroplasticity, and modulating neurotransmitter systems. This multi-level impact makes it a promising adjunctive treatment, particularly in patients with disrupted brain network function.
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, taVNS and CES
Migraine is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent attacks of moderate to severe headache, often accompanied by nausea, light and sound sensitivity, and in some cases, visual or sensory disturbances (aura). It is more than just a headache—it’s a disabling condition that disrupts quality of life, productivity, and daily functioning.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Migraine involves complex dysfunction in both vascular and neural systems, including:
Migraine affects over 1 billion people globally, making it the third most prevalent disorder and the second leading cause of disability worldwide (Global Burden of Disease Study). It is more common in women, with peak onset between ages 15 and 49, and can be episodic or chronic.
Neuromodulation is emerging as a breakthrough, non-pharmaceutical solution for migraine sufferers—especially those who don’t respond well to medications or prefer to avoid systemic treatments. Clinical research shows Neuromodulation can reduce migraine frequency by 20–60%, shorten attack duration, and lower medication use. In some studies, 60% of patients report a ≥50% reduction in headache days after applying non-invasive neuromodulation protocols in their daily routines.
Neuromodulation can be used prophylactically (to prevent attacks) or acutely (at onset), depending on the modality and protocol.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation targets dysregulated neural pathways and hyperexcitable cortical networks that underlie migraine. It helps to:
These physiological effects position neuromodulation as a highly promising adjunct or alternative to medication—non-invasive, drug-free, and clinically proven to reduce the burden of migraine.
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS and CES.
Fibromyalgia is a chronic pain syndrome characterized by widespread musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, sleep disturbances, cognitive dysfunction, and heightened sensitivity to touch and pressure. As a pain disorder it involves a deeper imbalance in how the central nervous system processes sensory information.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Fibromyalgia is associated with central sensitization, a state where the nervous system becomes hypersensitive to pain and sensory input.
Key physiological features include:
Fibromyalgia affects an estimated 2–4% of the global population, with a significantly higher prevalence in women. It typically emerges in adulthood and is frequently comorbid with depression, anxiety, and other chronic conditions. The disorder is debilitating, often reducing work capacity and quality of life.
Neuromodulation offers a drug-free approach for managing fibromyalgia, especially in patients with limited relief from medications. Clinical studies demonstrate that neuromodulation can lead to pain reduction of 33–60%, improved sleep quality, better mood, and enhanced cognitive function. Some trials report response rates above 40% after consistent use.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation targets the dysregulated brain circuits involved in pain amplification, emotional regulation, and cognitive clarity. It helps to:
This multifaceted effect makes neuromodulation a powerful adjunct or alternative to pharmacological treatment. It is safe, accessible, and personalized for long-term symptom management in fibromyalgia.
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS and CES.
Failed Back Surgery Syndrome (FBSS) is a chronic pain condition that persists or worsens after spinal surgery. Despite technically successful procedures, patients continue to experience debilitating back and/or leg pain, often accompanied by numbness, muscle weakness, and functional impairment. FBSS reflects not just mechanical issues, but a complex failure of the nervous system to properly regulate pain.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
The pain in FBSS stems from a combination of peripheral nerve injury, spinal pathology, and central sensitization. Key mechanisms include:
Estimates of the percentage of adults who experience chronic lower back pain during their lifetime range from 51% to 84%. FBSS is reported to affect between 10 to 40% of patients following back surgery. Increased complexity of back surgery increases the rate of FBSS; failure rates range from 30% to 46% for lumbar fusion and 19% to 25% for microdiscectomy.
It is a leading cause of chronic disability and opioid dependence, with a significant impact on mobility, mental health, and quality of life.
Clinical research has shown that neuromodulation can achieve pain reductions of 60-75%, even in long-standing, treatment-resistant cases. Improvements have also been noted in mobility, mood, and medication reduction, especially in patients with a strong neuropathic component to their pain.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation targets the maladaptive changes in the brain and spinal cord associated with FBSS. It helps to:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using a combination of tDCS and CES.
Chronic Postoperative Pain (CPOP) is persistent pain lasting more than 3 months after a surgical procedure, beyond normal healing. It can occur after nearly any type of surgery, ranging from orthopedic, thoracic, abdominal, to neurological procedures. It is often neuropathic in nature, causing burning, stabbing, or radiating pain. CPOP not only affects physical recovery but can lead to emotional distress, sleep disturbance, and functional impairment.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
CPOP results from a complex interplay of peripheral nerve injury, inflammatory processes, and central nervous system sensitization.
Key mechanisms include:
CPOP affects up to 10–50% of surgical patients, depending on the type of surgery, with the highest rates seen after thoracotomy, mastectomy, hernia repair, and amputation. Of these, 10–15% develop severe, disabling pain. The condition is often underdiagnosed and undertreated, leading to prolonged suffering and decreased quality of life.
Neuromodulation is rapidly gaining recognition as a breakthrough therapy for CPOP, especially for patients who fail to respond to traditional pain medications or physical therapy. Clinical studies show that various invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation technologies can reduce pain intensity up to 80%, with sustained relief in many cases. Patients also report improved mobility, mood, and reduced reliance on opioids, making it a compelling option in post-surgical recovery protocols.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation addresses the neuroplastic changes and hypersensitivity at the root of CPOP.
It works to:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using taVNS, tDCS and MET.
Anxiety disorders are a group of mental health conditions marked by excessive fear, worry, and physiological hyperarousal. Common types include generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobias. Symptoms can include restlessness, difficulty concentrating, muscle tension, and disturbed sleep. Left untreated, anxiety can significantly impair daily functioning, relationships, and overall well-being.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Anxiety involves dysregulation of brain circuits responsible for threat detection, emotional regulation, and cognitive control. Key physiological changes include:
Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent psychiatric conditions worldwide, affecting over 300 million people globally. Lifetime prevalence is estimated at 15–30%, with higher rates in women and in individuals with comorbid conditions such as depression, chronic pain, or trauma.
Clinical studies show neuromodulation can reduce anxiety symptoms by 30–80%, with response rates exceeding 40% in some populations. Patients report improvements in calmness, focus, and emotional regulation, with few to no side effects.
For individuals who do not respond to medication or prefer non-pharmacological approaches, neuromodulation is a highly promising option, suitable as both standalone and adjunctive treatment.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation works by modulating the neural circuits involved in fear and anxiety processing.
Its physiological effects include:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using taVNS, tDCS and CES.
Bipolar disorder is a chronic psychiatric condition characterized by extreme mood swings, ranging from depressive episodes (low energy, sadness, hopelessness) to manic or hypomanic episodes (elevated mood, increased energy, impulsivity). These shifts in mood, energy, and activity levels can severely disrupt thinking, behavior, relationships, and daily functioning. Bipolar disorder exists in several forms, including Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and Cyclothymia.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Bipolar disorder involves widespread dysregulation of mood-stabilizing circuits in the brain, including:
Bipolar disorder affects approximately 2–3% of the global population, though many remain undiagnosed or misdiagnosed. It typically emerges in late adolescence or early adulthood and carries a high risk for recurrence, hospitalization, and suicidality.
Neuromodulation shows promising in stabilizing mood and reducing symptoms across both depressive and manic phases. Clinical studies show that various neuromodulation technologies can reduce depressive symptoms in bipolar depression up to 77% and improve emotional regulation, executive function, and cognitive clarity.
As an adjunct to mood stabilizers or psychotherapy, neuromodulation offers a well-tolerated, side effect–sparing option, particularly for patients with treatment-resistant symptoms or those seeking alternatives to long-term polypharmacy.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation acts directly on the brain’s mood regulation systems, offering a physiological reset for bipolar instability. It helps to:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS.
Insomnia is a common sleep disorder defined by persistent difficulty with initiating or maintaining sleep, or experiencing non-restorative sleep, despite adequate opportunity. It often leads to daytime fatigue, irritability, impaired concentration, and reduced quality of life. Chronic insomnia can also increase the risk of depression, anxiety, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic disorders.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Insomnia is rooted in hyperarousal of the brain and body, leading to an inability to downregulate for sleep. Key mechanisms include:
Insomnia affects up to 30% of adults worldwide, with 10–15% experiencing chronic forms. It is more common in women, older adults, and individuals with comorbid conditions such as chronic pain, anxiety, or depression.
Neuromodulation offers a groundbreaking, drug-free approach for treating insomnia by calming overactive brain networks and restoring natural sleep patterns. Clinical research shows that neuromodulation as an alternative technique, can reduce sleep latency, increase total sleep time, and improve sleep efficiency, with improvements of 25–60% reported in many patients. It is especially effective in comorbid insomnia (e.g., insomnia with depression or chronic pain) and in patients who prefer to avoid hypnotic medications.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation targets the neural circuits responsible for sleep-wake regulation, delivering a calming, regulatory effect on brain activity. It works to:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using a combination of CES, taVNS and tDCS.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that can develop after exposure to traumatic events such as violence, accidents, combat, or abuse. It is marked by intrusive memories, avoidance behavior, emotional numbness, hypervigilance, and sleep disturbances. PTSD disrupts not only mental health but also physical well-being, relationships, and daily functioning.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
PTSD involves dysregulation of brain systems involved in threat detection, memory consolidation, and emotional control. Key neurophysiological features include:
PTSD affects approximately 3.5–6% of the general population, with much higher rates among veterans, first responders, and survivors of trauma. Women are nearly twice as likely to develop PTSD compared to men. The condition is frequently chronic, and often co-occurs with depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders.
Neuromodulation is an emerging, non-drug treatment showing strong promise for individuals with PTSD—especially those who haven’t fully responded to talk therapy or medications. Clinical studies report symptom reduction in 20–60% of patients, including improvements in flashbacks, emotional reactivity, sleep, and cognitive function.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation targets and rebalances the dysfunctional neural networks that underlie PTSD.
Its physiological effects include:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS.
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder primarily affecting motor function. Cardinal motor symptoms include tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability. Non-motor symptoms are also common and may involve cognitive decline, mood disorders, sleep disturbances, and autonomic dysfunction. PD significantly impacts daily function and quality of life.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
The hallmark of PD is degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to dopamine deficiency in the striatum. This disrupts basal ganglia circuitry, resulting in impaired motor control, coordination, and initiation of movement. Other pathophysiological features include:
PD is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer’s disease, typically affecting adults over the age of 60. It has a higher prevalence in males and is estimated to affect approximately 1% of the population over 60 years worldwide.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) is a promising adjunctive intervention in PD. Studies report moderate improvements in motor function, cognition, mood, and sleep. Benefits are individual-dependent, and long-term efficacy is still under investigation. Neuromodulation appears most effective when combined with physical or cognitive rehabilitation.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS modulates cortical excitability and enhances neural plasticity, helping to restore more balanced activity in motor-related and cognitive networks. Reported effects include:
Effects are typically temporary, requiring repeated sessions, and optimal protocols are still being studied.
We recommend combination of TPS, taVNS and tDCS.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the central nervous system, causing demyelination and neurodegeneration. This results in a wide range of motor, sensory, and cognitive symptoms, including muscle weakness, spasticity, sensory disturbances, fatigue, and cognitive deficits. MS significantly impacts daily function and quality of life.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
MS is characterized by inflammatory lesions, demyelination, and axonal damage in the brain and spinal cord, which disrupt normal neural transmission. Key neurophysiological features include:
MS typically affects young to middle-aged adults, with a higher prevalence in females. The disease is more common in regions farther from the equator and currently affects over 2.8 million people worldwide.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) shows promising adjunctive effects in MS, particularly in alleviating fatigue, improving motor function, and enhancing cognitive performance. Clinical benefits are often modest and can vary between individuals, with longer-term efficacy still under investigation.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS modulates cortical excitability and network connectivity, potentially supporting neuroplasticity and functional recovery. Reported benefits include:
Effects may be temporary, and repeated sessions are often required for sustained benefit.
We recommend combination of TPS, tDCS and taVNS.
Learning Disabilities (LD) are neurodevelopmental disorders that impair the brain’s ability to acquire and use academic skills such as reading, writing, or mathematics, despite normal intelligence and opportunity. Subtypes include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (math), and dysgraphia (writing). LDs often co-occur with ADHD or language impairments, affecting academic achievement, self-esteem, and social-emotional development.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
LDs involve atypical brain connectivity and cortical activation in language, attention, and executive networks. Key findings include:
LDs affect approximately 5–15% of school-aged children worldwide, with dyslexia being the most common (up to 7–10% prevalence). They are diagnosed more often in boys and frequently persist into adulthood, impacting education and employment outcomes. Early identification and intervention improve long-term prognosis.
Emerging research supports non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) as an adjunct to educational and behavioral therapy. Studies show 10–25% improvement in reading fluency, phonological processing, attention, and working memory when tDCS, TPS, or tVNS are combined with training. CES and MET may further enhance alertness and stress regulation. Evidence is preliminary but promising for targeted cognitive enhancement.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS may strengthen learning networks by improving cortical excitability, plasticity, and functional connectivity. Reported effects include:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS and TPS.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by chronic abdominal pain, bloating, and altered bowel habits (diarrhea, constipation, or mixed patterns). Although it does not involve structural abnormalities, IBS significantly impacts daily functioning, emotional well-being, and quality of life. Symptoms often fluctuate and may be influenced by stress, diet, or autonomic dysregulation.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
IBS reflects dysfunction of the gut–brain axis, involving altered sensory processing, autonomic imbalance, and emotional regulation. Neurophysiological features include:
IBS affects approximately 10–15% of the global population, with higher prevalence in women and in individuals under age 50. Onset commonly occurs in adolescence or early adulthood, and many patients experience chronic, recurrent symptoms. Variability in diagnostic criteria contributes to differences in reported prevalence.
Emerging evidence suggests that non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) may provide 15–35% improvement in IBS symptoms, particularly in reducing abdominal pain, visceral hypersensitivity, and anxiety. Effectiveness varies by stimulation target and protocol, with the strongest results observed when NIBS is paired with behavioral or dietary interventions. Evidence remains preliminary but indicates meaningful symptom reduction in selected patients.
Effect of Neuromodulation
NIBS appears to alleviate symptoms by modulating cortical and limbic circuits involved in visceral pain processing and emotional regulation. Reported effects include:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, MET and taVNS.
Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is a clinical syndrome marked by noticeable declines in memory or other cognitive domains that exceed what is expected for age, but do not substantially interfere with daily functioning. MCI is often considered a transitional stage between normal aging and dementia, particularly Alzheimer’s disease, and may involve amnestic or non-amnestic subtypes.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
MCI is associated with early neurodegenerative and network-level changes, particularly in memory and executive circuits:
These changes contribute to memory deficits, slowed processing speed, and attentional difficulties, often preceding overt dementia.
MCI affects approximately 10–20% of adults over age 65, with higher risk in individuals with cardiovascular disease, depression, or a family history of dementia. A proportion of patients will progress to Alzheimer’s disease or other dementias, although some remain stable or even improve with intervention.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has shown 10–30% improvements in memory, attention, and processing speed in MCI, particularly when applied to early-stage or amnestic subtypes. Effect size depends on stimulation site, protocol, and cognitive domain targeted. NIBS is most effective when combined with cognitive training or rehabilitation exercises.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS enhances activity and plasticity in underactive networks, promoting improved cognitive function. Reported effects include:
Use of NIBS for MCI is currently off-label.
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, TPS, taVNS and CES.
Addiction is a chronic, relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive drug-seeking, loss of control over use, and continued consumption despite harmful consequences. It affects brain systems governing reward, motivation, and self-regulation, and includes substance addictions (e.g., alcohol, nicotine, opioids, stimulants) as well as behavioral addictions such as gambling
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Addiction involves dysregulation of the mesolimbic dopamine system and associated cortical circuits:
Together, these neural changes create a cycle of craving, impaired self-regulation, and continued substance use.
Addiction affects approximately 5–8% of the global population, with prevalence varying by substance, region, and age. Alcohol and nicotine use disorders are most common, but opioids, stimulants, and behavioral addictions are also significant public health concerns.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has shown 15–40% reductions in craving and substance use in some patients, particularly when applied to prefrontal regions involved in self-control and reward regulation. Effects are most consistent for nicotine and alcohol use disorders, though outcomes vary by substance, stimulation parameters, and individual neurobiology. Combining NIBS with behavioral therapy enhances efficacy.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS modulates dysfunctional networks to support recovery:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, TPS, taVNS and CES.
Oncology is the branch of medicine concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer, a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and the potential to invade or metastasize to other tissues. Cancer can affect nearly any organ, with diverse clinical manifestations and systemic effects. Beyond the primary disease, patients often experience treatment-related side effects, including cognitive, emotional, and neurological impairments.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Although cancer primarily involves peripheral tissues, both the disease and treatments (e.g., chemotherapy, radiation, surgery) can cause neurological and cognitive complications:
These changes highlight the central nervous system impact of cancer and its treatments, contributing to reduced quality of life and functional capacity.
Cancer affects approximately 1 in 6 people globally, with incidence increasing with age. The most common types include breast, lung, colorectal, and prostate cancers. Survival and prognosis vary depending on cancer type, stage at diagnosis, and access to treatment. Long-term survivors often contend with sequelae of therapy, including cognitive dysfunction, fatigue, and neuropathic pain.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has shown 20–40% improvement in cancer- and treatment-related symptoms, including cognitive dysfunction, fatigue, depression, and neuropathic pain. Effects are moderate but clinically meaningful, with outcomes influenced by cancer type, treatment stage, stimulation parameters, and individual neurobiology. NIBS is most effective when combined with rehabilitative, behavioral, or pharmacologic interventions.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS may improve symptom burden by modulating cortical and limbic networks:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, TPS and taVNS.
ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with academic, occupational, or social functioning. Symptoms often begin in childhood, but may persist into adulthood, affecting multiple domains of daily life and self-regulation.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
ADHD involves altered activity and connectivity in brain networks responsible for attention, executive function, and behavioral control:
These neural alterations disrupt fronto-striatal and fronto-parietal network integration, producing the core cognitive and behavioral features of ADHD.
ADHD affects approximately 5–7% of children and 2–5% of adults worldwide. Diagnosis is more common in males during childhood, though adult presentation can be underrecognized. Comorbidities such as learning disabilities, anxiety, and mood disorders are common.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) shows 10–30% improvement in attention, working memory, and impulse control in ADHD. Effects are variable, influenced by age, symptom severity, and stimulation parameters. Benefits are often enhanced when NIBS is combined with behavioral therapy or cognitive training.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS may improve ADHD symptoms by enhancing activity in underactive networks and supporting neural plasticity:
Use of NIBS in ADHD is currently off-label.
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS.
ALS is a progressive neurodegenerative disease affecting upper and lower motor neurons, resulting in muscle weakness, paralysis, and eventually respiratory failure. Cognitive and behavioral changes occur in a subset of patients, often overlapping with frontotemporal dysfunction. Disease progression is typically rapid and relentlessly debilitating.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
ALS pathology primarily involves motor neuron degeneration, with additional network-level and cellular dysfunctions:
These changes result in progressive motor deficits, reduced functional independence, and eventual respiratory compromise.
ALS affects approximately 2–5 people per 100,000 annually, most commonly between ages 40–70, with a higher prevalence in males. The majority of cases are sporadic, while 5–10% are familial due to known genetic mutations.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has shown limited but emerging benefits, with studies reporting 10–20% improvements in motor function, spasticity, or slowing of decline, particularly in early-stage ALS. Evidence remains preliminary, and effects vary by stimulation protocol and disease stage.
Effect of Neuromodulation
NIBS may support ALS patients by modulating cortical excitability and motor networks:
Use of NIBS in ALS is currently off-label.
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, taVNS and TPS.
Dementia is a progressive neurological syndrome characterized by decline in memory, thinking, behavior, and functional abilities. It affects multiple cognitive domains such as short-term memory, language, executive function, and spatial awareness, leading to loss of independence and significant caregiver burden. The most common form is Alzheimer’s disease, though other types include vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, and frontotemporal dementia.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Dementia involves progressive neurodegeneration and disruption of brain networks responsible for cognition, emotion, and motor coordination. Key pathophysiological features include:
Dementia affects over 55 million people worldwide, with nearly 10 million new cases annually (WHO). Prevalence increases sharply with age, impacting up to 30–50% of individuals over age 85. It is a leading cause of disability and dependence among older adults and poses an enormous emotional, social, and economic burden globally.
Neuromodulation is a promising, non-pharmacological intervention aimed at slowing cognitive decline and enhancing brain function in early to moderate dementia. Clinical trials show cognitive improvements of 20–40% in attention, working memory, language, and executive function, particularly when NIBS is combined with cognitive training or rehabilitation therapies.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS enhances brain network activity and plasticity, offering direct stimulation to compensatory regions that are still functional. It helps to:
Non-invasive neuromodulation using TPS, tDCS and taVNS.
Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes. It is the most common cause of dementia, ultimately impairing daily functioning and independence.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Alzheimer’s disease involves widespread neurodegeneration and network disruption:
These changes underlie progressive deficits in memory, attention, executive function, and behavior.
Alzheimer’s affects approximately 5–8% of adults over age 65, with prevalence increasing sharply with age. Women are more frequently affected, and risk is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has demonstrated 10–30% improvements in memory, attention, and other cognitive functions in mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease. Effects are variable and often temporary, influenced by stimulation site, parameters, and disease stage. Combining NIBS with cognitive or behavioral therapy may enhance benefits.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS may enhance neuroplasticity and network connectivity in underactive brain regions:
Use of NIBS in Alzheimer’s is currently off-label.
Non-invasive neuromodulation using TPS, tDCS and taVNS.
Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are a group of conditions resulting from atypical brain development, typically emerging in early childhood and affecting cognition, behavior, emotion, and social functioning. These include Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), intellectual disabilities, communication disorders, and specific learning disorders. Common features across NDDs include deficits in executive function, attention regulation, adaptive behavior, and social-emotional skills. These conditions often co-occur and persist across the lifespan, requiring long-term, individualized support.
ASD is a prominent example, characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and the presence of restricted, repetitive behaviors. However, each NDD has unique clinical profiles and underlying neural mechanisms.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
NDDs involve widespread and complex disruptions in early brain development. Though specific mechanisms vary by disorder, common neurophysiological features include:
These alterations can interfere with sensory integration, executive function, social cognition, and emotional regulation.
Neurodevelopmental disorders affect an estimated 15–20% of children globally. ASD is diagnosed in approximately 1–2% of individuals worldwide, while ADHD affects 5–7% of school-aged children. Many individuals experience comorbid symptoms across multiple domains. The impact on education, employment, mental health, and family systems is substantial, highlighting the need for early and effective interventions.
Neuromodulation methods are promising adjunctive interventions for NDDs, targeting cortical regions involved in attention, emotion, and cognitive control. Studies show modest but meaningful improvements (15–30%) in attention, working memory, mood regulation, and social behavior, particularly in ASD and ADHD. Various neuromodulation methods may also enhance neuroplasticity, connectivity, and cognitive performance with high spatial precision.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation techniques modulate brain activity and network dynamics.
Reported effects in NDDs include:
Neuromodulation is not a standalone cure but shows promise as a tool to optimize brain function and amplify the effects of existing therapies in children and adults with NDDs.
We recommend the combination of tDCS, TPS and taVNS technologies.
Important: The use of these devices for Neurodevelopmental Disorders is currently considered off-label, meaning they are not officially approved by regulatory agencies for treating NDDs. The use of these technologies is determined according to each individual’s personalized treatment plan and specific condition. They should only be applied under the guidance of qualified medical professionals and in accordance with individualized neuromodulation protocols developed by our SOZO Medical team.
Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures resulting from abnormal, excessive, or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. Seizures can vary in type, duration, and severity, and may affect motor, sensory, cognitive, or autonomic functions. Epilepsy can significantly impact quality of life, daily functioning, and mental health.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Epilepsy arises from imbalanced excitatory and inhibitory neural activity and network hyperexcitability:
Epilepsy affects approximately 0.5–1% of the global population (~50 million people worldwide). It can develop at any age, with higher incidence in early childhood and in older adults. Etiologies include genetic mutations, structural brain lesions, infections, and metabolic or autoimmune conditions.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has shown 10–30% reduction in seizure frequency and improvements in interictal cognitive and mood symptoms in select epilepsy patients. Effectiveness is variable, influenced by seizure type, cortical target, and stimulation protocol. NIBS may be particularly useful as an adjunct to pharmacotherapy or when medication is limited by side effects.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
We recommend non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS and taVNS.
Motor Neuron Disease (MND) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting upper and lower motor neurons that control voluntary muscle activity. It leads to muscle weakness, atrophy, spasticity, dysarthria, dysphagia, and, in later stages, respiratory failure. Cognitive and behavioral changes occur in up to 50% of patients, often overlapping with the frontotemporal dementia spectrum.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
MND is characterized by degeneration and dysfunction of motor neurons in the motor cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord. Pathophysiological mechanisms include:
• Loss of upper and lower motor neurons, leading to denervation and muscle wasting
• Cortical hyperexcitability and disrupted inhibitory control preceding motor neuron loss
• Glutamate excitotoxicity and calcium overload causing neuronal injury
• Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, impairing cellular energy balance
• Protein aggregation and neuroinflammation, promoting progressive degeneration
• Network-level disconnection between cortical and spinal circuits affecting motor output and coordination
These mechanisms collectively contribute to progressive weakness, functional decline, and impaired motor control.
MND affects approximately 2–5 individuals per 100,000 annually, with onset most common between 40 and 70 years of age. The disease is slightly more prevalent in males, and 5–10% of cases are familial, linked to mutations in genes such as SOD1, C9orf72, TARDBP, and FUS.
Evidence for non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) in MND is preliminary but encouraging. Small-scale studies and pilot trials report 10–20% improvements in motor performance, spasticity, fatigue, and slowing of functional decline, particularly in early or less advanced stages. Effects are variable, and current evidence remains exploratory pending larger controlled trials.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS may help modulate cortical excitability and support residual motor function through network-level effects:
Effects are typically short-term and require repeated or maintenance sessions. Use is adjunctive, not disease-modifying.
Use of NIBS in MND is currently off-label and should be performed under specialist supervision.
We recommend non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS and TPS.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent differences in social communication and interaction together with restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. Presentation varies widely across individuals (from minimally to highly impairing) and frequently includes co-occurring conditions such as intellectual disability, ADHD, anxiety, epilepsy and sleep disorders.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Contemporary research has identified several common brain patterns in autism, while emphasizing that these can vary widely between individuals:
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is relatively common. In the United States, the 2022 ADDM Network surveillance reported approximately 32.2 per 1,000 children aged 8 years (about 1 in 31), with variation by region, sex, and demographic factors. Globally, pooled estimates from systematic reviews suggest a prevalence of 0.7–1.0%, consistent with approximately 1–2% of individuals worldwide.
Neuromodulation techniques are emerging as promising adjunctive interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorder, targeting brain regions involved in social cognition, attention, and executive function. Early studies report modest but meaningful improvements (roughly 10–30%) in social responsiveness, attention, repetitive behaviors, and related cognitive or emotional outcomes, particularly when stimulation is combined with behavioral or educational therapies.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
We recommend the combination of tDCS, TPS and taVNS technologies.
Important: The use of these technologies for Autism Spectrum Disorder is currently considered off-label, meaning they are not officially approved by regulatory agencies for treating ASD. The use of these technologies is determined according to each individual’s personalized treatment plan and specific condition. They should only be applied under the guidance of qualified medical professionals and in accordance with individualized neuromodulation protocols developed by our SOZO Medical team.
Post-stroke encephalopathy involves network-level disruption and neuronal dysfunction in affected and connected brain regions:
These mechanisms explain both focal and widespread cognitive and behavioral impairments after stroke.
Cognitive and behavioral deficits affect up to 30–50% of stroke survivors, with higher risk in older adults and those with large or cortical strokes. These deficits can persist long-term, contributing to functional dependence, reduced quality of life, and caregiver burden.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) is emerging as a therapeutic adjunct for post-stroke cognitive and motor deficits. Studies report 10–30% improvements in attention, memory, executive function, and motor performance, particularly when NIBS is combined with rehabilitative training. Response varies by lesion location, chronicity, and stimulation parameters.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS may enhance neuroplasticity and network recovery in post-stroke brains:
Use of NIBS for post-stroke encephalopathy is currently off-label.
We recommend non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, TPS, taVNS and CES.
Myalgic Encephalomyelitis / Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) is a complex, multisystem disorder characterized by persistent fatigue, post-exertional malaise, cognitive dysfunction (“brain fog”), unrefreshing sleep, autonomic instability, and pain. Symptoms are not fully explained by other medical conditions and often fluctuate in severity. ME/CFS is thought to involve central nervous system, immune, and metabolic dysregulation, resulting in reduced physical and cognitive endurance.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
ME/CFS is associated with neuroimmune and autonomic dysregulation, leading to altered brain and body homeostasis:
ME/CFS affects an estimated 0.2–0.8% of the global population, with a female predominance (3:1) and onset typically between ages 20 and 50. Many cases follow viral infections, immune stressors, or prolonged physiological or psychological stress. The disorder is associated with significant disability and reduced quality of life.
Emerging evidence suggests non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) may offer 10–30% improvement in fatigue severity, cognitive function, and pain in individuals with ME/CFS. Benefits are more pronounced when stimulation is combined with pacing, graded activity, or cognitive-behavioral interventions. Evidence remains preliminary, with heterogeneity in stimulation targets and outcomes.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS may help restore cortical-autonomic balance and enhance network efficiency through several mechanisms:
Effects are typically moderate and cumulative, requiring multiple sessions for sustained benefit. Use remains off-label and adjunctive to holistic management.
We recommend non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, TPS, taVNS and CES.
Cerebral Palsy (CP) is a non-progressive neurodevelopmental disorder resulting from injury or abnormal development of the immature brain, primarily affecting motor control and posture. Clinical features include muscle spasticity, weakness, dystonia, and impaired coordination. Cognitive, sensory, and communication difficulties may also be present, depending on the extent and location of brain involvement.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
CP involves static lesions or malformations of the developing brain, leading to disrupted motor pathway integrity and altered cortical excitability.
Functional imaging reveals reorganization of motor networks as compensatory mechanisms, which may contribute to both recovery and maladaptive motor patterns.
CP is the most common motor disability in childhood, affecting approximately 2–3 per 1,000 live births worldwide. It results from diverse etiologies, including perinatal hypoxia, infection, prematurity, or brain malformation. Advances in neonatal care have improved survival but not reduced overall prevalence.
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has shown 10–30% improvements in motor function, spasticity reduction, and coordination when combined with physiotherapy or motor training. tDCS and TPS over motor areas can enhance motor learning, while tVNS, and CES, may aid relaxation, sensory integration, and autonomic balance. Evidence supports the greatest benefits in pediatric and early-rehabilitation contexts.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
NIBS promotes neuroplasticity and network reorganization in affected motor regions. Reported effects include:
Benefits are typically moderate and depend on early, repeated, and targeted intervention. Use of these devices in CP is currently off-label.
We recommend non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, TPS, tVNS, and CES.
Tinnitus is the perception of ringing, buzzing, or hissing in the absence of external sound. For many, it becomes a persistent and intrusive experience that disrupts sleep, concentration, and overall emotional well-being. Over time, this constant internal noise can increase stress, irritability, and difficulty focusing, significantly affecting daily life.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
Tinnitus arises from abnormal signaling within the auditory system and its interaction with broader neural networks:
Tinnitus affects 10–15% of the global population, with roughly 1–2% experiencing severe, life-impacting symptoms. It is most common in older adults but is increasingly reported in younger individuals due to noise exposure, chronic stress, and ototoxic medications.
Neuromodulation provides a non-pharmacological treatment option for tinnitus, particularly when traditional interventions offer limited relief. Clinical research shows meaningful reductions in tinnitus loudness, distress, and associated anxiety in 30–60% of patients, depending on the stimulation technique and treatment duration.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation helps regulate the core neural mechanisms behind tinnitus by:
These combined effects make neuromodulation a strong adjunctive approach for addressing both the sound perception and emotional burden of tinnitus.
Non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS and taVNS.
Spinal cord injury results from trauma or disease that damages the spinal cord, leading to loss of motor, sensory, and autonomic function below the level of injury. Symptoms range from weakness and sensory deficits to complete paralysis, chronic pain, and impaired bladder, bowel, and cardiovascular regulation. SCI significantly affects independence, mobility, and quality of life.
Neurophysiology of Disease/Disorder:
SCI disrupts communication between the brain and body, triggering widespread neurological changes:
SCI affects 250,000–500,000 people worldwide each year, with the majority caused by motor vehicle accidents, falls, sports injuries, and violence. It is most common in young adults (particularly males) and older individuals at high fall risk. Lifelong medical, psychological, and rehabilitative support is often required.
Neuromodulation has emerged as a promising therapeutic avenue for SCI, complementing rehabilitation and medical care. Studies show that targeted stimulation can improve motor activation, sensory recovery, spasticity, and autonomic stability in a significant subset of patients, depending on injury severity and treatment parameters.
Effect of Neuromodulation:
Neuromodulation supports recovery by:
These effects make neuromodulation a valuable adjunct to conventional rehabilitation in chronic and subacute SCI.
We recommend non-invasive neuromodulation using tDCS, TPS, tVNS, and CES.
Book a consultation today to learn more about how neuromodulation therapy can help.
